Pcstructures including supported polyamines and methods of making the supported polyamines

ABSTRACT

Methods of making a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, a PPI sorbent, structures including the PPI sorbent, methods of separating CO 2  using the PPI sorbent, and the like, are disclosed.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to co-pending U.S. provisional application entitled “Poly(propylenimine) and dendritic poly(ethylenimine) for CO₂ capture in composite sorbents” having Ser. No.: 62/421,463, filed on Nov. 14, 2016, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND

Supported amines are of particular importance because these materials can be applied in a wide variety of potential applications such as base-catalyzed reactions, adsorption of heavy metal ions, immobilization of bio-molecules, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture. Incorporation of amine moieties into/onto the support frameworks has been achieved but limitations still remain.

SUMMARY

Methods of making a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, a PPI sorbent, structures including the PPI sorbent, methods of separating or capturing CO₂ using the PPI sorbent, and the like, are disclosed.

In an embodiment, the present disclosure includes a material comprising including a porous structure. The porous structure can have supported thereon at least one of: a) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent is in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, wherein the PPI sorbent can include a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, or both the linear PPI and the dendritic PPI; b) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI can be physically impregnated in the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the porous structure; and c) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent can be in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof. In an aspect the PPI sorbent is a linear PPI or a dendritic PPI. In a particular aspect the PPI sorbent is a linear PPI.

In an embodiment, the present disclosure includes a method of capturing CO₂, including exposing a gas mixture to a porous structure. The method includes: a) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent can be in a plurality of the pores of the porous structure, wherein the PPI sorbent can include a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, or both the linear PPI and the dendritic PPI; b) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI can be physically impregnated in the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the porous structure; and/or c) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent can be in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, wherein the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof; and capturing the CO₂ in the porous structure. In an aspect the PPI sorbent is a linear PPI or a dendritic PPI. In a particular aspect the PPI sorbent is a linear PPI.

Other structures, methods, structures, features, and advantages will be, or become, apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional structures, systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present disclosure, and be protected by the accompanying claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Many aspects of this disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of this disclosure. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views.

FIGS. 1A-B are examples of structures of compounds. FIG. 1A provides Structure A, which is an illustrative non-limiting example, where n can be 1 to 10,000, and R₁ and R₂ can each independently be H or an alkyl group such as CH₃ or CH₂. FIG. 1B provides Structure B, which is an illustrative non-limiting example, where n can be 1 to 10,000.

FIGS. 2A-B illustrate non-limiting embodiments of dendritic PPI. FIG. 2A is a “first generation” dendritic PPI (Structure C) and FIG. 2B shows a “second generation” dendritic PPI (Structure D).

FIG. 3 shows TGA of EI-den (solid lines) and PI-den (dashed lines) impregnated in SBA-15 at various weight loadings (from 10% to 50%, corresponding to roughly 2-20 mmol N per gram SBA-15).

FIG. 4 is an example of the CO₂ capacity of test sorbents before and after oxidation in SBA-15 and mesoporous Al₂O₃.

FIG. 5 provides FTIR spectra of each of the aminopolymers tested before (black) and after (red, light gray) oxidation at 110° C.

FIG. 6 shows examples of ¹H NMR of the linear probe molecules TETA (left) and TPTA (right) before (top, red, light gray) and after (bottom, black) oxidation at 110° C. * indicates the solvent peak (CDCl₃)

FIG. 7 provides ESI mass spectra for (black) fresh and (red) oxidatively-treated linear aminopolymer TETA and TPTA.

FIG. 8 is an example of synthesis of LPPI via cationic ring-opening polymerization of 2-MeOxazine with methyl tosylate as the initiator.

FIG. 9 provides an example of TGA of neat LPPI at 36000 g/mol (black), and LPPI impregnated in SBA-15 at various weight loadings (from 10%-50%, corresponding to roughly 2-20 mmol N per gram SBA-15).

FIG. 10 is an example of CO₂ capacity of linear PPI (LPPI) impregnated in SBA-15 before (closed symbols) and after oxidation (open symbols).

FIG. 11 shows complete FTIR spectra of neat LPPI (black), and LPPI supported in SBA-15 before (blue, medium gray) and after (red, light gray) oxidative treatment at 110° C.

FIG. 12 is an example of CO₂ adsorption isotherms for LPPI impregnated in SBA-15.

FIG. 13 provides an example of TGA of resin-neutralized BPPI, NH₄OH-neutralized BPPI, and untreated BPPI impregnated in SBA-15 at various weight loadings (from 9%-45%, corresponding to roughly 2-14 mmol N per gram SBA-15).

FIG. 14 is an example of CO₂ capacity (mmol CO₂/g silica) for BPPI polymers (initial azetidine:perchloric acid concentration ratio=3.7 and temperature=343 K, after 144 hours polymerization) loaded in SBA-15: (gray) untreated and (black) neutralized by basic resin at different polymer loadings: 1.8 and 8.2 mmol N/g silica.

FIG. 15 shows normalized mass loss curves determined from TGA analysis for different PPI polymers (initial azetidine:perchloric acid concentration ratio=3.7 and temperature=343 K, after 144 hours polymerization) loaded in SBA-15 at 15 at 1.79-2.2 mmol N/g silica: (bottom) as synthesized and (top) neutralized by basic resin.

FIG. 16 shows distribution of amines in different PPI polymers (initial azetidine:perchloric acid concentration ratio=3.7 and temperature=343 K, after 144 hours polymerization): (sample a) untreated, (sample b) neutralized by NH₄OH, and (sample c) neutralized by basic resin as calculated from ¹H-NMR in D₂O. The full spectra are shown at left with the peak deconvolution of samples a and c shown at right.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present disclosure is described in greater detail, it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particular embodiments described, and as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the disclosure. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges and are also encompassed within the disclosure, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the disclosure.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, the preferred methods and materials are now described.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this disclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustrated herein has discrete components and features which may be readily separated from or combined with the features of any of the other several embodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the present disclosure. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of events recited or in any other order that is logically possible.

Embodiments of the present disclosure will employ, unless otherwise indicated, techniques of chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and the like, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature.

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to perform the methods and use the compositions and compounds disclosed and claimed herein. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C., and pressure is at or near atmospheric. Standard temperature and pressure are defined as 20° C. and 1 atmosphere.

Before the embodiments of the present disclosure are described in detail, it is to be understood that, unless otherwise indicated, the present disclosure is not limited to particular materials, reagents, reaction materials, manufacturing processes, or the like, as such can vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for purposes of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. It is also possible in the present disclosure that steps can be executed in different sequence where this is logically possible.

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a compound” includes a plurality of compounds. In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will be made to a number of terms that shall be defined to have the following meanings unless a contrary intention is apparent.

Definitions:

The term “alkyl” refers to straight or branched chain hydrocarbon groups having 1 to 20 carbon atoms such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, and the like. The alkyl group can be substituted (e.g., a halogen).

Discussion

Methods of making a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, a PPI sorbent, structures including the PPI sorbent, methods of separating CO₂ using the PPI sorbent, and the like, are disclosed. In an aspect, the PPI sorbent can be used to adsorb CO₂ in one or more CO₂ capture applications. In one aspect, the PPI sorbent can be used to capture CO₂ in gas streams including a low concentration (e.g., about 400 ppm, as in ambient air in most locations around the world) of CO₂. In another aspect, the PPI sorbent can be used to capture CO₂ in gas streams including high concentrations of CO₂ (e.g., 1 to 15%, such as in flue gas), or intermediate compositions of CO₂ from about 0.5% to about 1%. As a result, embodiments of the present disclosure can be used in different types of CO₂ concentration environments.

Relative to other CO₂ sorbents, embodiments of the present disclosure show equivalent or superior absorption characteristics, while exhibiting excellent stability to oxidative degradation. In particular, embodiments of the present disclosure are advantageous over PEI sorbents for one or more of the foregoing reasons.

In an embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be used to adsorb CO₂. In this regard, embodiments of the present disclosure can be used to remove (e.g., capture) CO₂ from a gas produced by the use (e.g., burning) of fossil fuels (e.g., flue gas) from CO₂ in the ambient air, or mixtures of these. The PPI sorbent can be regenerated for regenerative adsorption processes. In this regard, the PPI sorbent has the ability to adsorb and desorb CO₂ repeatedly by temperature swing, pressure swing, steam swing, concentration swing, combinations thereof, or other dynamic processes. In an embodiment, the steam swing process can include exposing the structure to steam, where the temperature of the steam is about 60° C. to 150° C. and the pressure of the steam is about 0.2 bara to 5 bara.

In a particular aspect, the structure can have a high surface area (e.g., porous layers and/or porous structure surface) and the PPI sorbent enables the structure to have a high CO₂ sorption capacity. In an embodiment, the PPI sorbent is within the pore volume of the pores of the porous layers and/or porous structure surface. In an aspect, the pores (e.g., mesopores) may not be overfilled by the PPI sorbent, so there exists suitable space for the transport of gases through the pores via diffusion, although other gas transport processes can occur (e.g., advection, convection, and the like). In another aspect, the pores (e.g., mesopores) can be substantially filled by the PPI sorbent and still function to adsorb CO₂. It is also contemplated that a system can be used where the transport of gases is through a pressure drop through the pores. In other embodiments where the pore size is sufficiently large and/or the material is a monolith, the gas can contact the PPI sorbent by controlling the flow of the gas relative to the orientation of the material to enhance the performance of the material. Additional details are provided for the structures herein.

In an embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be physically impregnated in the internal volume pores of the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure, can be grafted (e.g., covalently bonded directly or indirectly) to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure, or a combination thereof. In an embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be covalently bonded (e.g., directly to the surface or via a linker group) to the surface of the material, which may include the internal surface of pores for a porous layer or porous structure, although the PPI sorbent can be otherwise bonded or attached to the surface (e.g., Van der Waals, ionic bonds or hydrogen bonds). In an aspect, the covalent bonding can be achieved using known techniques in the art for PPI and PEI. In regard to the PPI sorbent being physically impregnated in the pores of the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure, the PPI can otherwise be bonded or attached to the surface (e.g., Van der Waals, ionic bonds or hydrogen bonds).

In an embodiment, the PPI sorbent is present in a plurality of pores (internal volume) of the porous structure (“porous structure” can include a structure having pores in its surface or a structure having a porous layer or coating on the surface of the structure (where the structure itself may or may not be porous)). In this embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, or the structure can include both linear PPI and dendritic PPI, each of which are described in more detail herein. In this embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be physically impregnated in the internal volume of the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the internal surface of the porous structure, can be grafted to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure, or a combination thereof. In this embodiment, the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof.

In regard to the loading, the loading is determined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). A brief written description of this is given in Example 5. Also given in Example 5 is a figure showing TGA mass loss curves for the dendritic and low molecular weight linear PPI. Example 13 shows TGA mass loss curves for the higher MW linear PPI. Example 19 shows mass loss curves for branched PPI.

In regard to the counterion, the counterion content is determined from elemental analysis of the supported polymer, whereas for perchloric acid initiated polymerization of branch-PPI, the mol of Cl per mol of N was calculated. This is described in Example 20, and a table of counterion content is provided as table 1. In an aspect the counterion can be one or more of: perchlorate, chlorine, nitrate, ((di)hydrogen) phosphate, (bi)sulfate, or trifluoroacetate. In an aspect, the counterion can come from perchloric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, trifluoroacetic acid, which may be used as an initiator in the polymerization to create the PPI.

In another embodiment, the PPI sorbent is present in a plurality of pores (internal volume) of the porous structure (“porous structure” can include a structure having pores in its surface or a structure having a porous layer or coating on the surface of the structure (where the structure itself may or may not be porous)), where the PPI is physically impregnated in the internal volume of the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure. In this embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, a branched PPI, hyperbranched PPI, or a combination thereof, each of which are described in more detail herein. In this embodiment, the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof.

In yet another embodiment, the PPI sorbent is present in a plurality of pores (internal volume) of the porous structure (“porous structure” can include a structure having pores in its surface or a structure having a porous layer or coating on the surface of the structure (where the structure itself may or may not be porous)), where the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof . In this embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be physically impregnated in the internal volume of the pores of the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure, can be grafted to the internal surface of the pores of the porous structure, or a combination thereof. In this embodiment, the PPI sorbent can be a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, a branched PPI, or hyperbranched PPI, or a combination thereof, which are described in more detail herein.

In general, PPI can be defined as having a repeat structure —(NR—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂)—, where R can be H or CH₂, and also having one or more units: H_(x)N—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂, where x=0, 1, or 2, and zero or more units: —CH₃. Illustrative examples of PPI include linear PPI, dendritic PPI, branched PPI, and hyperbranched PPI, which are described in more detail below.

Primary amines are defined as having the structure —NH₂R¹, where R¹ is an alkyl group such as CH₂ or CH_(3.) Secondary amines are defined as having the structure —NHR¹R², where R¹ and R² are independently selected from H or an alkyl group such as CH₂ or CH₃. Tertiary amines are defined as having the structure —NR¹R²R³, where R¹, R², and R³ are independently selected from H or an alkyl group such as CH₂ or CH₃.

In an aspect, a linear PPI is defined as containing only primary amines, secondary amines, or both primary and secondary amines (e.g., structure A, shown in FIG. 1A, is an illustrative non-limiting example, where n can be 1 to 10,000, and R₁ and R₂ can each independently be H or an alkyl group such as CH₃ or CH₂). The ratio of secondary to primary amines can be about 0.5 to 10,000. In an aspect, the linear PPI can have a molecular weight of about 200 to 30,000 g/mol or about 600 to 5,000 g/mol.

In an aspect, a branched PPI is defined as containing any number of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines (e.g., structure B, shown in FIG. 1B, is an illustrative non-limiting example, where n can be 1 to 10,000), which does not overlap linear PPI or dendritic PPI. The ratio of primary, secondary, and tertiary can be about 10:80:10 to 60:10:30, about 60:30:10 to 30:50:20, or about 45:45:10 to 35:45:20. As one of skill would understand, the structures of branched PPI can vary greatly and can be very complex. In an aspect, the branched PPI can have a molecular weight of about 200 to 30,000 g/mol or about 600 to 5,000 g/mol.

In an aspect, a dendritic PPI is defined as containing only primary and tertiary amines, where groups of repeat units are arranged in a manner that is necessarily symmetric in at least one plane through the center (core) of the molecule, where each polymer branch is terminated by a primary amine, and where each branching point is a tertiary amine The ratio of primary to tertiary can be about 1 to 3. Illustrative non-limiting embodiments of dendritic PPI are illustrated below. On the left is a “first generation” dendritic PPI (Structure C, FIG. 2A) and on the right a “second generation” dendritic PPI (Structure D, FIG. 2B) is shown. In an aspect, the dendritic PPI can have a molecular weight of about 200 to 30,000 g/mol or about 280 to 3,000.

In an aspect, the PPI is a hyperbranched PPI. Hyperbranched PPI is defined as having structure resembling dendritic PPI, but containing defects in the form of secondary amines (e.g. linear subsections as would exist in a branched polymer), in such a way that provides a random structure instead of a symmetric structure. The hyperbranched PPI does not overlap branch PPI or dendritic PPI. In a hyperbranched structure, the ratio of primary to secondary to tertiary can be about 65:5:30 to 30:10:60. In an aspect, the hyperbranched PPI can have a molecular weight of about 200 to 30,000 g/mol or about 600 to 10,000 g/mol.

In a particular aspect, the PPI is a linear PPI or a dendritic PPI. In a more particular embodiment the PPI is a linear PPI.

In an embodiment, the size (e.g., length, molecular weight), amount (e.g., number of distinct PPI sorbent polymers), and/or type of PPI sorbent polymer, can be selected based on the desired characteristics of the porous structure (e.g., CO₂ absorption, regenerative properties, oxidative stability, loading, and the like).

In general, the structure can include powders, a pellet, a foam, a laminate, an extrudate particle, a film, a sheet, a mesh, a foil, flakes, a wire, a rod, a monolith, a honeycomb structure, or combinations thereof. In an aspect, the structure can be porous or non-porous or have porous and non-porous areas. In an embodiment, the structure is a porous structure. In an aspect, the structure can be gas permeable scaffold that gas can be flow through and/or over the surface over to capture CO₂. In an aspect, the structure can be made of a material that is hydrothermally stable.

In an embodiment, the structure can be made of one or more types of materials such as ceramic, metal, metal oxide, plastic, cellulose, carbon, or fiberglass,. In an aspect, the ceramic structure can be selected from cordierite, alumina (eg., γ-alumina, θ-alumina, δ-alumina), cordierite-α-alumina, silica, aluminosilicates, zirconia, germania, magnesia, titania, hafnia, silicon nitride, zircon mullite, spodumene, alumina-silica magnesia, zircon silicate, sillimanite, magnesium silicates, zircon, petalite, and combinations thereof in an aspect, the metal or metal oxide structure can he aluminum, titanium, stainless steel, a Fe—Cr alloy, or a Cr—Al—Fe alloy. In cases where the oxide contains a formal charge, the charge can be balanced by appropriate counter-ions, such as cations of NR₄, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Li, H, Rb, Sr, Ba, Cs or anions including phosphate, phosphite, sulfate, sulfate, nitrate, nitrite, chloride, bromide and the like.

In an aspect, the plastic structure can he a polymer and/or copolymer of polyolefin(s), polyester(s), polyurethane(s), polycarbonate(s), polyetheretherketone(s), polyphenylene oxide(s), polyether suifone(s), inelamnine(s), polyarnide(s), polyacrylates, polystyrenes, polyacrylonitriles, polyimides, polyfurfural alcohol, phenol furfuryl alcohol, melamine formaldehydes, resorcinol formaldehydes, cresol formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, polyvinyl alcohol dialdehyde, polycyanurates, polyacrylamides, various epoxies, agar, and agarose, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the structure can include porous structures (e.g., macroporous, mesoporous, microporous, or mixtures thereof (e.g., where a macroporous surface can include mesopores, and/or micropores, within one or more of the macropores, where a mesoporous surface can include micropores, and so on)). In an aspect, the porous structure is mesoporous. In an aspect, the pores can extend through the porous structure or porous layer or only extend to a certain depth. In an aspect, the macropores of the porous structure can have pores having a diameter of about 100 nm to 10,000 nm, a length of about 500 nm to 100,000 nm and a volume of 0.2-1 cc/g. In an aspect, the mesopores of the porous structure can have pores having a diameter of about 5 nm to 100 nm, a length of about 10 nm to 10,000 nm, and a volume of 0.5-2 cc/g. In an aspect, the micropores of the porous structure can have pores having a diameter of about 0.5 to 5 nm, a length of about 0.5 nm to 1000 nm and a volume of about 0.1-1 cc/g.

In an aspect, the surface of the structure can have porous walls that have a porosity of at least 90%, at least 85%, at least 80%, at least 75%, at least 70%, at least 65%, at least 60%, or about 60 to 90% In some embodiments, the porous walls of the flow-through substrate have a surface area of 100 m₂/g or more, 150 m²/g or more, 200 m²/g or more, or 250 m²/g or more.

In an embodiment, the substrate can include a surface layer on the surface of the pores of the substrate that can bond with the PPI. In an aspect, the surface layer can include organically modified moieties (e.g., alkyl groups, hydroxyl groups, carboxylate groups, amines, phosphoric acid, sulfonic acid, thiols, phosphines, and the like) on the surface (e.g., outside and/or inside surfaces of pores) of the material. In an embodiment, the surface layer can include surface alkyl groups hydroxyl groups, carboxylate groups, amines, phosphoric acid groups, sulfonic acid groups, thiols, phosphines, and the like, that the PPI can directly covalently bond and/or indirectly covalently bond (e.g., covalently bond to a linker covalently bonded to the material). In an embodiment, the surface layer can include an organic polymer having one or more of the following groups: alkyl groups, hydroxyl groups, carboxylate groups, amines, phosphoric acid groups, sulfonic acid groups, thiols, phosphines, and the like. In another embodiment, the structure can be a carbon support, where the carbon support can include one or more of the following groups: alkyl groups, hydroxyl groups, carboxylate groups, amines, phosphoric acid groups, sulfonic acid groups, thiols, phosphines, and the like.

In an aspect, the substrate can include a porous coating (also referred to as a “washcoat”) on the surface of the substrate. In an embodiment, the porous coating can be a foam such as a polymeric foam (e.g., polyurethane foam, a polypropylene foam, a polyester foam, and the like), a metal foam, or a ceramic foam. In an aspect, the porous coating can include a metal-oxide layer such as silica or alumina on the surface of the substrate. In an aspect, the porous coating can be present on the surface of the substrate, within the pores or voids of the substrate, or a combination thereof. In an embodiment, the porous coating can be about 100 μm to 1500 μm thick and the pores can be of the dimension described above and herein. In an aspect, the substrate can be a porous substrate and can also include the porous coating on some or all parts of the porous substrate, where the PPI can be present in one or both of the pores of the porous substrate and the porous coating.

In an embodiment, the preferred structure can be a honeycomb structure such as a monolith honeycomb structure that includes channels. In an aspect, the monolith honeycomb structure can have a length and width on the order of cm to rn while the thickness can be on the order of mm to cm or more. In an aspect, the monolith honeycomb structure does not have fibrous dimensions. In other words, the honeycomb structure can be a flow-through substrate comprising open channels defined by walls of the channels. In an aspect, channels can have about 50 to about 900 cells per square inch. In an aspect, the channels can be polygonal (e.g., square, triangular, hexagonal) sinusoidal, circular, or the like, in cross-section. The length of the channels can be straight, zig-zag, skewed, or herringbone in shape and can have a length of 1 mm to 10 s of cm or more. The channels can have walls that are perforated or louvered. In an aspect, the PPI can be disposed in the pores of the honeycomb structure and/or in the pores of a porous layer on the surface of the honeycomb structure.

In an embodiment, the honeycomb structure can comprise an inlet end, an outlet end, and inner channels extending from the inlet end to the outlet end. In some embodiments, the honeycomb comprises a multiplicity of cells extending from the inlet end to the outlet end, the cells being defined by intersecting cell or channel walls.

In an aspect, the honeycomb structure is ceramic (e.g., of a type produced by Corning under the trademark Celcor®) that can be used with the PPI sorhent in accordance with the principles of the present disclosure. The PPI sorhent can be coated or otherwise immobilized on the inside of the pores of the ceramic honeycomb structure and/or within a porous layer on the surface of the ceramic honeycomb structure. In an aspect, the porous coating can include a metal-oxide layer such as silica or alumina on the surface of the substrate. In an embodiment, the metal-oxide layer can be mesoporous.

In a preferred embodiment, the ceramic substrates form part of a system having elements for moving the monolithic ceramic substrates between a position where sorbent on the monolithic structure is exposed to ambient air from which CO₂ can be extracted by the sorbent, and a position where the sorbent can be regenerated and the CO₂ captured. This regeneration preferably is carried out in a sealed regeneration chamber, where the carbon dioxide-laden sorbent is exposed to process heat steam at a temperature not greater than 100-120° C.; the thus released CO₂ is withdrawn from the regeneration chamber for storage or further treatment.

Alternatively, the structure can be a stationary bed of particulate porous material such as a ceramic held together in a support that is open to a flowing gaseous mixture but effective to hold the stationary bed in place when exposed to the gas flow, e.g., ambient air, to adsorb the carbon dioxide from the air, or when exposed to process heat steam to regenerate the sorbent and release the carbon dioxide. Details of such a system and the method for carrying out the sorption and regeneration, are set forth in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 9,028,592; or in US patent application publication number US 2015/0273385, which are incorporated herein by reference as if fully repeated herein. Such individual discrete particles can include a powder, an extrudate particle, flakes or spheres.

The individual particles can also form a moving bed where the individual particles are moved either by gas flow or by a moving belt for example between a position where they will be exposed to a gas mixture containing carbon dioxide and a position where the sorbent is regenerated and the freed carbon dioxide is captured for further storage or processing.

Such particulate forms of the substrate can be utilized regardless of the materials forming the particles, but the particles are preferably formed of a ceramic, a metal, or a metal oxide in such cases.

EXAMPLE

Now having described the embodiments of the sorbents in general, the Examples describe some embodiments of the sorbents and uses thereof. The following is a non-limiting illustrative example of an embodiment of the present disclosure that is not intended to limit the scope of any embodiment of the present disclosure, but rather is intended to provide some experimental conditions and results. Therefore, one skilled in the art would understand that many experimental conditions can be modified, but it is intended that these modifications be within the scope of the embodiments of the present disclosure.

Example 1

Removal of CO₂ from gas streams is emerging as an important technical challenge for a variety of applications, and in particular to reducing or offsetting emissions related to the burning of fossil fuels for power. Directly reducing emissions typically involves capturing the CO₂ from a large point source such as power plant flue gas before it can enter the atmosphere. Offsetting emissions, in some cases, can involve removing CO₂ directly from the atmosphere after it has already been emitted; this is often referred to as direct air capture, or DAC.

The use of solid sorbents in CO₂ capture from power plant flues as well as ambient air is regarded as promising, but yet still developing technologies. There are a variety of solid sorbents that have been proposed and demonstrated for CO₂ capture from gas streams similar to flue gas and air. These include zeolites, metal oxides, MOFs, activated carbons, and amine modified analogues of most of these porous materials. The amine modified materials are often referred to a ‘supported amine adsorbents’ and are particularly promising for CO₂ capture from ultra-dilute gas streams such as air due to their chemisorptive interaction with CO₂. There are several methods of incorporating amine molecules into the pores of a support material that have been grouped into three classes depending on the method. Class 1 sorbents rely on the physical impregnation of molecules or polymers into the pore space of the host; class 2 sorbents are created via the grafting of an amine containing silane to the pore surface of the host; and class 3 sorbents are created via the in-situ polymerization of reactive monomers that graft and polymerize from the pore surface into the pore volume.

In general, aspects of the present disclosure provide a supported amine material, incorporating a physically impregnated poly(propylenimine) (PPI) as the amine, that can be used as a CO₂ sorbent in a variety of CO₂ capture applications. In particular, the sorbent is advantageous in applications of CO₂ capture from gas streams containing low concentrations of CO₂, ranging from below that in air up to and exceeding that in flue gas. In the sorbents described here, PPI is used as an amine containing molecule distributed in the pore volume of a porous support media to create the CO₂ sorbent. However, compared to sorbents created with poly(etheylenimine) (PEI), sorbents based on PPI show increased CO₂ capture efficiency and stability to oxidative degradation, providing them advantages. Sorbents based on PPI are regenerative at temperatures near 100° C., and are meant for use in regenerative adsorption processes including temperature swing, pressure swing, steam swing, or combinations thereof.

It was found that sorbents based on PPI have improved efficiency in CO₂ capture processes and increased stability to extended oxidative treatment compared to PEI, irrespective of molecular weight, distribution of amine type, or backbone structure. Thus, PPI may be used in place of PEI to create a more effective sorbent in any prior art teaching the use of a sorbent created with PEI to capture CO₂ in an adsorptive process.

Aspects of the present disclosure material differ from currently known solid sorbents that are subsequently impregnated into the pores of a porous support. These differences may be the result of the starting material and preparation steps that result in materials with differing structure and performance. Aspect of the disclosure can have a polymer architecture that may be linear or dendritic, as well as branched or hyperbranched.

Previous academic literature suggested that structures containing only primary and tertiary amines are more stable to oxidative degradation than those containing secondary amines However, it is shown here that linear PPI, containing nearly exclusively secondary amines, has a similar resistance to oxidation as dendritic PPI, which contains exclusively primary and tertiary amines (i.e. no secondary amines). Further, both molecular structures of PPI are substantially more resistant to oxidation than structures of PEI. This is manifested in a greater retention of CO₂ capacity in PPI sorbents compared to PEI sorbents following accelerated O₂ degradation tests at 110° C. for 24 h. It is further confirmed by spectroscopic investigation of the sorbents before and after the exposure. Example 7-10 and 15 show the loss in CO₂ capacity before and after, revealing the large differences between PPI and PEI sorbents supported in SBA-15 silica. Further, examples 8-10 show NMR, IR, and MS data of both PEI and PPI before and after the O₂ exposure. As such, one may expect that in a CO₂ capture process involving the exposure, or potential exposure, of O₂ to a sorbent, PPI will provide a longer lifetime than PEI.

In addition to improved stability to O₂, PPI is a more efficient CO₂ capture agent in a supported amine material than PEI. FIG. 4 shows the capture capacity (expressed per gram of support material) as a function of polymer loading for model linear and dendritic PPI and PEI sorbents. For a given structure (linear or dendritic), the PPI sorbents capture between 20-50% more CO₂ than PEI sorbents. This may be related to differences in basicity of the various amines The basicity (pKa) of an amine increases as the alkyl linker that is attached to it gets longer (trend from C₂ to C₆) and the nearest neighbor interactions decrease. The increase in pKa from this so called ‘polyelectrolyte effect’ may affect the CO₂ capture capability positively, allowing a greater fraction of amines to retain a high affinity towards CO₂ at low partial pressures.

It is found that the molecular weight of the polymer can alter the CO₂ capture performance at high loadings on the support, but does not alter the resistance to oxidation. Higher molecular weight polymers induce a greater degree of diffusion resistance to CO₂, resulting in lower observed capture capacities. As such, in a preferred embodiment PPI of molecular weight 200-30,000 g/mol is used in a sorbent. In a further preferred embodiment, PPI of molecular weight 600-5,000 g/mol is used in a sorbent. In a further preferred embodiment, the polymer is linear, branched or hyperbranched in structure.

While the majority of examples disclosed here utilize SBA-15 as a support, the body of literature on supported amine adsorbents created with PEI allows extrapolation of these results to embodiments created with many other support types. This literature shows that the PEI can be effective in CO₂ capture applications when distributed support materials of varying chemical nature, given that the pore volume, pore size and surface area fall within certain ranges. Specifically, high performing sorbents are created when PEI is distributed in supports containing pore volumes >0.5 cc/g, pore sizes >5 nm and surface areas >100 m²/g. This has been demonstrated on supports comprised of silica, alumina, porous polymer, activated carbon, zeolites, MOFs, cellulose, and others. As such, it can be reasoned that PPI will also be effective as the polymer component of a sorbent supported on any similar support media, given the comparative performance demonstrated on SBA-15 silica, and given that the textural properties fall within the range noted above. Indeed, a comparison of CO₂ uptake performance of TPTA, used as a molecule demonstrative of the entire PPI structure and molecular weight family, shows similar performance of PPI when supported on an alumina substrate compared to a SBA-15 silica substrate. In a preferred embodiment, polymer is loaded into the porous support at a volumetric fill fraction corresponding to 20-120% of the pore volume of the substrate. As an example, SBA-15 containing a pore volume of ˜1 cm³/g was loaded to levels of between 2-20 mmol N/g SiO₂; this corresponds to weight loadings of 10% and 50%, and, assuming polymer density of ˜1 cc/g, fractional volume fillings of 10% and 100%. In a further preferred embodiment, PPI is supported on a hydrothermally stable substrate such as mesoporous alumina.

The sorbent may take the form of a powder, pellet, extrudate, foam laminate sheet or set of sheets, or honeycomb monolith. PPI may be incorporated as the active component of the sorbent in each of the form factor categories above. A particularly effective embodiment for the removal of CO₂ from air and mixtures of flue gas and air is the use of a porous honeycomb monolith, created from or functionalized with a supported amine CO₂ sorbent. Therefore, in a preferred embodiment the supported PPI sorbent takes the form of a honeycomb monolith. This may be as a washcoat applied to a honeycomb shaped substrate, as a homogeneous but porous honeycomb shaped monolith, as a filler applied to a highly porous or skeletal substrate, or any other manner by which the sorbent would take the form of a honeycomb. Further, the polymer component of the sorbent may be applied to a preformed honeycomb, as in an impregnation or washcoating treatment. Such a polymer coating may take place in a solvent that dissolves the polymer and is subsequently evaporated. Conversely, the honeycomb may also be formed out of a polymer laden powder sorbent. In a preferred embodiment, the monolith walls contain porosity in the range of 5-100 nm totaling 0.5-2 cc/g of pore volume to host the polymer sorbent. In a further preferred embodiment, the monolith walls also contain pores >100 nm totaling >0.5 cc/g of pore volume to facilitate rapid gas transport to and from the polymer sorbent.

It is expected that the temperature at which the CO₂ process operates will affect the capture performance of the sorbent. A strong temperature dependence on the adsorption performance is found for PPI sorbents here, with the Henry's law region of the CO₂ isotherm shifting to higher pressures at higher temperatures. Therefore, in a preferred embodiment, the adsorption process is performed at temperatures up to 75° C., and regeneration is performed at a temperature of 65-150° C.

Example 2 Synthesis of SBA-15 Mesoporous SiO₂

24 g of Pluronic P123 block copolymer ((EO)₂₀(PO)₇₀(EO)₂₀) was dissolved in 636 g of deionized water and 120 mL of 12.1 M HCl. The components were stirred vigorously for 3 h, until everything dissolved. 46.6 g of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) was added dropwise to the mixture and stirred at 40° C. for 20 h, during which time a white precipitate formed. The solution was then heated to 100° C. and held for 24 h in the absence of stirring. The reaction was quenched with 400 mL deionized water and the precipitate was filtered and washed copiously with deionized water. The filtered precipitate was dried for 12 h in an oven at 75° C., and then calcined according to the following program: heat to 200° C. at 1.2° C./min, hold at 200° C. for 1 h, heat to 550° C. at 1.2° C./min, hold at 550° C. for 12 h, cool to room temperature. The resulting white powder was stored in ambient lab conditions.

Example 3 Synthesis of mesoporous Al₂O₃

To an acidic solution containing 1.27 g nitric acid (70%) and 200 mL DI H₂O, 13.75 g of psuedoboehmite (Catapal B, 74.3% Al₂O₃) was added and stirred. The resulting suspension was sonicated at room temperature for 90 minutes, and then further stirred at 60° C. for 17 hours. After cooling to room temperature, a pre-equilibrated mixture of 200 mL of ethanol (200 proof) and 15.3 g Pluronic P123 was slowly added to the suspension. The resultant mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours before the solvent was slowly evaporated by stirring in an open beaker at 60° C. for 60 hours, followed by further drying in an oven at 75° C. for 24 hours. Finally, the resulting gel was calcined at 700° C. for 4 hours, with a 1° C./min ramp and an intermediate drying step at 150 C for 1 hour, to remove the surfactant and form a mesoporous gamma phase alumina powder.

Example 4 Synthesis of EI-Den

To a solution of 1,3-dibromopropane (0.28 mL, 2.74 mmol) and K₂CO₃ (1.90 g, 13.77 mmol) in anhydrous CH₃CN at room temperature, bis(2-azidoethyl)amine (0.85 g, 5.48 mmol) dissolved in CH₃CN was added dropwise. The mixed solution was then stirred and heated at 80° C. for 48 h. The solid was removed by filtration and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography over silica gel using EA/Hex=1:1 (v/v) as the eluent. The proper fractions were combined, and the solvent was evaporated to yield a yellow oil.

Ph₃P (4.50 g, 17.16 mmol) was dissolved in THF and H₂O mixed solution (10:1 v/v) at room temperature, and the yellow oil (0.5 g, 1.43 mmol) dissolved in THF was added. The solution was then stirred and heated at 80° C. for 48 h. TLC was used to monitor the completion of reaction. THF was removed by rotary evaporation and the product was extracted with iced H₂O. The product (EI-den) was collected by evaporation of H₂O and obtained as light brown oil and stored at −20° C. (0.24 g, 68%).

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, δ): 2.77-2.74 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 8H), 2.51-2.45 (m, 12H), 1.89 (s, 8H), 1.66-1.59 (quint, J=7.2 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃, δ): 57.12, 52.59, 39.71, 24.96. ESI-MS (m/z): [M+H]⁺ calculated for C₁₁H₃₁N₆: 247.2605, found: 247.2604.

Example 5 Synthesis of PI-Den

To a solution of bis(3-hydroxypropyl)amine (3.3 g, 25 mmol) in chloroform at 0° C., thionyl chloride (11.9 g, 100 mmol) dissolved in chloroform was added dropwise. The solution was then stirred for 24 h at room temperature. The solvent was evaporated, and the crude product was purified by recrystallization from CHCl₃ to yield bis(3-chloropropyl)amine as a white solid (3.9 g, 92%).

A solution of bis(3-chloropropyl)amine (1.7 g, 10 mmol) and sodium azide (3.3 g, 50 mmol) in water was heated at 80° C. for 24 h. After evaporating most of the water, the solution was made basic with sodium hydroxide and then extracted with diethyl ether. The organic phase was combined and dried over potassium carbonate. After evaporating the solvent, the residue was purified by column chromatography over silica gel using EA/Hex=1:1 (v/v) as the eluent. The proper fractions were combined, and the solvent was evaporated to yield compound bis(3-azidopropyl)amine as yellow oil (1.3 g, 71%).

To a solution of 1,3-dibromopropane (0.28 mL, 2.74 mmol) and K₂CO₃ (1.90 g, 13.77 mmol) in anhydrous CH₃CN at room temperature, bis(3-azidopropyl)amine (1.00 g, 5.48 mmol) dissolved in CH₃CN was added dropwise. The mixed solution was then stirred and heated at 80° C. for 48 h. The solid was removed by filtration and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography over silica gel using EA/Hex=1:1 (v/v) as the eluent. The proper fractions were combined, and the solvent was evaporated to yield a yellow oil (0.96 g, 86%).

Ph₃P (4.50 g, 17.16 mmol) was dissolved in THF and H₂O mixed solution (10:1 v/v) at room temperature, and the yellow oil (0.58 g, 1.43 mmol) dissolved in THF was added. The solution was then stirred and heated at 70° C. for 48 h. TLC was used to monitor the completion of reaction. THF was removed by rotary evaporation and the product was extracted with iced H₂O. The product (PI-den) was collected by evaporation of H₂O and obtained as light brown oil and stored at -20° C. (0.3 g, 70%).

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, δ): 2.74-2.70 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 8H), 2.47-2.43 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 8H), 2.43-2.38 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 4H), 1.69 (s, 8H), 1.62-1.55 (m, 10H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃, δ): 52.22, 51.84, 40.69, 30.81, 24.51. ESI-MS (m/z): [M+H]⁺ calculated for C₁₅H₃₉N₆: 303.3231, found: 303.3230.

Example 6 Preparation of Aminopolymer/Oxide Composite

SBA-15 in Example 2 or mesoporous alumina in Example 3 was impregnated with the liquid aminopolymers (commercially-available triethylenetetraamine (TETA), tripropylenetetraamine (TPTA), EI-den as in Example 4, PI-den as in Example 5) by wet impregnation. SBA-15 or mesoporous alumina was dried overnight at 110° C. under vacuum (<20 mTorr). The desired amount of amine was dissolved in 10 mL methanol and was added to 200 mg SBA-15 or mesoporous alumina. The mixture was allowed to stir for at least 6 h. Methanol was removed in vacuo at room temperature. The resulting powder was dried overnight at room temperature under vacuum (<20 mTorr). The resulting dried powder composites were stored in ambient lab conditions.

Thermogravimetric analysis was performed on a Netzsch STA409PG TGA to determine the weight loading of aminopolymer in the composite material, shown in FIG. 3. Weight loss between 120° C. and 900° C. was taken to represent the organic content of the material. The determined weight loadings correspond to roughly 2-20 mmol N per gram SBA-15.

Example 7 Oxidative Treatment of Aminopolymers

Approximately 100 mg neat liquid aminopolymer (commercially-available triethylenetetraamine (TETA), tripropylenetetraamine (TPTA), EI-den as in Example 4, PI-den as in Example 5) was placed in a two-neck round-bottom flask equipped with reflux condenser. A flow of ultra-zero grade air was introduced into the flask via a needle and bubbled into the liquid. While stirring, the liquid was heated to the desired oxidation temperature (typically 110° C.) and held for 24 h. Subsequently, the liquid was cooled to room temperature. Oxidatively-treated-aminopolymer/SBA-15 composites were prepared via the procedure in Example 6.

Example 8 Adsorption of CO₂ by Supported Aminopolymer Composites

Equilibrium CO₂ adsorption capacities were measured gravimetrically on a TA Instruments Q500 TGA. The materials in Examples 6 and 7 were pretreated by heating to 70° C. at a ramp rate of 5° C./min under a flow of N₂ and held for 2 h. The samples were cooled to 35° C. and equilibrated at this analysis temperature for 1 h. Subsequently, the gas flow was switched to a premixed gas containing 400 ppm CO₂/N₂ for 3 h. The mass gain was recorded, converted to amount of CO₂ adsorbed, and normalized by the dry mass of the sample.

There are three trends that emerge from FIG. 4 that have important implications for CO₂ capture. The first is that the propyl-spaced molecules (TPTA, PI-den) outperform their ethyl-spaced analogues (TETA, EI-den) across the range of loadings and architectures evaluated in both SBA-15 and mesoporous A1203. The second is that the linear molecules (TETA, TPTA) outperform the analogous dendrimers (EI-den, PI-den) and randomly branched (PEI) across the range of loadings evaluated. The third is that the propyl-spaced molecules retain a significant amount of CO₂ capacity after oxidation at 110° C., while the ethyl-spaced molecules lose nearly all of their capacity following oxidation at 110° C. Additionally, TPTA supported in mesoporous alumina performs similar to that in SBA-15.

Example 9 Study of Aminopolymer Oxidation by FTIR

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were recorded under vacuum on a Bruker Vertex 80v optical bench with a DLaTGS detector. Approximately 2 mg of the sample was diluted by 100 mg KBr and pelletized for analysis.

FIG. 5 shows the FTIR spectrum of each of the oxidized sorbents normalized to the Si—O—Si framework bending mode at 460 cm⁻¹. For all sorbent materials, the expected stretches above 2500 cm⁻¹ are observed, corresponding to NH, OH, and CH₂ stretches. After oxidation, some of these stretches decrease in intensity, but no other peaks appear, as expected. The stretches near 1640, 1570 and 1475 cm⁻¹ correspond vibrations of the aminopolymers and ammonium carbamate ion pairs formed by capture of CO₂ from ambient air.⁶⁻⁹ Below this region, the vibrational spectra are dominated by modes from the support, and so are not discussed here.

After the oxidative treatment, an intense peak at 1665 cm⁻¹ appeared in the spectra for the ethylenimine sorbents TETA and EI-den; this peak has been attributed to the stretching mode of C═N or C═O groups, consistent with oxidation of the aminopolymers. This oxidation product is correlated with the sharp loss in CO₂ capacity. In contrast, the peak at 1665 cm⁻¹ did not appear with significant intensity for the propylenimine sorbents TPTA and PI-den, consistent with retention of CO₂ capacity as seen in the results above. To confirm that the oxidation trends observed here were not due to the use of liquid-phase aminopolymers, essentially identical oxidation experiments were performed after impregnating the SBA-15 with aminopolymer molecules. The results of the liquid-phase and impregnated sorbent oxidation experiments resulted in similar changes in all cases: a peak at 1665 cm⁻¹ appeared in the spectra for both TETA and EI-den. TPTA and PI-den still did not appear to oxidize to a significant extent, but the intensity of the stretches for TPTA decreased significantly, indicating loss of organic content due to evaporation during the 110° C. thermal treatment.

Example 10 Study of Aminopolymer Oxidation by NMR

Solution-phase NMR experiments were carried out on the neat and oxidatively-treated molecules. These data are given in FIG. 6 below. Prior to oxidation, TETA shows peaks at 2.81, 2.74, 2.68 ppm corresponding to the three types of methylene protons in the molecules. After exposure to flowing air at 110° C., many peaks appear in the 2.0-4.5 ppm region, indicating many new types of methylene protons. Importantly, peaks in the 8.0-8.3 ppm region of the ¹H spectrum appear, suggesting formation of imine (—CH═N—) and/or amide (—C(═O)NH) species. These assignments are supported by the appearance of carbon shifts at 160-165 ppm, which have also been previously assigned to imine and amide species formed after oxidation of aminopolymers.

In contrast, there was very little change in the TPTA ¹H and ¹³C NMR spectra after oxidative treatment, corroborating the observations from the IR spectra that TPTA was not oxidized significantly.

Example 11 Study of Aminopolymer Oxidation by ESI-MS

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) experiments were performed to examine the formation of oxidized and thermally rearranged products (FIG. 7). TETA was characterized by a single peak at m/z=147, corresponding to singly protonated TETA, as expected. After oxidation, this peak disappeared completely and was replaced by peaks at m/z=169 and 165, suggesting that all of the TETA molecules had been oxidized. These masses are consistent with thermal rearrangement and/or dehydrogenation reactions and addition of up to two oxygen atoms, consistent with formation of imines and amides, in agreement with IR and NMR studies.

Example 12 Synthesis of 2-methyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxazine (2-MeOxazine)

2-methyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxazine (2-MeOxazine) was synthesized by reacting acetonitrile with 3-aminopropan-1-ol over anhydrous ZnCl₂. ZnCl₂ was dissolved in acetonitrile, and 3-aminopropan-1-ol was added dropwise at room temperature, allowing the evolving NH3 to vent. Once all of the 3-aminopropan-1-ol was added, the system was purged with dry Ar and heated to 95° C. and held stirring for 48 h. After cooling to room temperature, excess acetonitrile and ammonia were removed under vacuum. 2-MeOxazine was isolated by distillation under vacuum at 65° C., cooling with a dry ice/isopropyl alcohol mixture, to afford a clear and colorless inviscid liquid. ¹H NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz, δ): 4.12-4.15 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 3.31-3.34 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 1.87-1.81 (q, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 1.86 (s, 3H).

Example 13 Synthesis of Linear Poly(propylenimine) LPPI

Prior to polymerization, 2-MeOxazine in Example 12 was dried over CaH₂ by stirring at 65° C. 2-MeOxazine was collected into a Straus flask by distillation under vacuum at 65° C. and cooling with a dry ice/isopropyl alcohol mixture. After distillation was complete, the 2-MeOxazine was stored under Ar and transferred into a dry box. Acetonitrile was dried over CaH₂ by stirring at 65° C., and was collected into a Straus flask by distillation under vacuum at 30° C., stored under Ar and transferred into a dry box.

10 g 2-MeOxazine in the dry box was transferred into a round bottom flask, to which 50 mL acetonitrile was added. An amount of methyl tosylate initiator was added, based on the desired final molecular weight of the polymer. The round bottom flask was sealed with a rubber septum and heated to 90° C. to initiate polymerization. Polymerization was allowed to proceed for 48 h, after which 2.0 equivalents of 1,3-diaminopropane was added to quench the reaction. The acetonitrile and residual 1,3-diaminopropane was removed under vacuum to recover a viscous yellow liquid, denoted as poly(oxazine).

Poly(oxazine) was converted to linear PPI by acid hydrolysis of the side chains. 200 mL of 5 M aqueous HCl was added to the poly(oxazine) residue and stirred at 100° C. for 48 h. The residual polymer was concentrated under vacuum; the concentration process largely removed the acetic acid by product along with aqueous HCl. The concentrated polymer was cooled in an ice bath and brought to pH 14 using concentrated aqueous NaOH, which caused the polymer to first become fully dissolved, and then precipitate as an off-white powder. Linear PPI (LPPI) was recovered by centrifugation and washed copiously with 10% ammonium hydroxide to remove any residual inorganic salt. The final polymer was dissolved in methanol and dried under high vacuum to afford an off-white solid. By varying the 2-MeOxazine to initiator ratio, the molecular weight of the LPPI could be reliably controlled from approximately 600 g/mol to 36000 g/mol.

Example 14 Preparation of LPPI/SBA-15 Composites

LPPI of varying molecular weight in Example 13 was impregnated into SBA-15 at a range of weight loadings corresponding to roughly 2-20 mmol N per gram SBA-15 (FIG. 9) using a similar procedure to that in Example 6. The PPI weight loading was determined using a similar procedure to that in Example 6.

Example 15 Oxidative Treatment of LPPI/SBA-15 Composites

A fraction of the LPPI/SBA-15 composite in Example 14 was also subjected to oxidative treatment by exposing the sample to a flow of 21% O₂ at 110° C. for 24 h. Subsequently the samples were cooled to room temperature.

Example 16 Adsorption of CO₂ by LPPUSBA-15 Composites

‘Equilibrium CO₂ adsorption capacities of LPPI/SBA-15 composites in Examples 14 and 15 in 400 ppm CO₂ and 35° C. were measured gravimetrically on a TA Instruments Q500 TGA in a similar procedure as in Example 8.

As seen in FIG. 10, there were no large differences in the CO₂ adsorption capacity as a function of amine loading for LPPI over several orders of magnitude in molecular weight. All molecular weights of LPPI appeared to retain a significant amount of CO₂ capacity after the oxidative treatment at 110° C. However, it appeared that higher molecular weights of LPPI retained more of the CO₂ capture capacity, possibly due to differences in the ability for O₂ to diffuse through the large and densely packed LPPI chains.

Example 17 Study of LPPI Oxidation by FTIR

Evidence for formation of imine or amide species was tested by FTIR spectroscopy on LPPI impregnated in SBA-15 before and after oxidation, FIG. 11, with a similar procedure to that in Example 9. There was no evidence for the appearance of a sharp band around 1665 cm⁻¹, suggesting that LPPI was not oxidized to a significant extent during this treatment. Therefore, we attribute the loss in CO₂ capacity seen in FIG. 10 to rearrangement reactions in the harsh oxidative environment, which could cause formation of tertiary amines, which are not active for CO₂ capture under our conditions.

Example 18 Adsorption of CO₂ by LPPUSBA-15 as a Function of Temperature and Pressure

CO₂ uptake on LPPI/SBA-15 was studied as a function of CO₂ pressure and adsorption temperature in a Micromeritics ASAP 2020. The materials were dried in a sample tube under vacuum at 110° C. for 12 h prior to conducting the isotherm measurement (FIG. 12). At low temperature, LPPI adsorbs at all partial pressures tested, with a large fraction of the uptake occurring in the low pressure (<1 Torr) region. As the temperature of adsorption is increased, the pressure region in which sharp uptake occurs shifts to higher pressure, indicating that a larger thermodynamic driving force is required for adsorption at higher temperature. At high pressure of CO₂, around 100 Ton, the amount of CO₂ adsorbed appears to increase as temperature increases, suggesting that access to adsorption sites is hindered at lower temperatures. After a critical temperature, the thermodynamic driving force decreases to an extent such that accessibility no longer is the issue, and the amount of CO₂ adsorbed begins to decrease.

Example 19 Synthesis and Neutralization of Branched Poly(propylenimine) (BPPI)

Branched PPI was synthesized via cationic ring opening polymerization of azetidine. The synthesis was carried out according to Goethals et al. [Schacht, E. H.; Goethals, E. J. Cationic Polymerization of Cyclic Amines, 3. Polymerization of Azetidine. Die Makromol. Chemie 1974, 175 (12), 3447-3459 DOI: 10.1002/macp.1974.021751211] in methanol solvent and perchloric acid (70% in H₂O) as the initiator in a 25 mL pressure tube. First, 0.11 g of azetidine was added to 2 mL of stirring methanol in a 25 mL pressure tube with a given amount of acid initiator. The pressure tube was capped and placed in a heated oil bath (343-353 K). The reaction progress was monitored via ¹H-NMR and stopped after several hours (<150 h). The polymer was concentrated by rotary evaporation and then neutralized. BPPI and 10 mL water were added to 25 mL AMBERSEP 900 (OH) basic resin and stirred for 12 h at room temperature. The resin was removed from the PPI solution by filtration and rinsed with water; the polymer in solution was concentrated by rotary evaporation. ¹H-NMR was used to quantify molecular weight based on the relative ratio of residual rings to polymeric species.

Example 20 Preparation of Neutralized BPPI/SBA-15 Composites

BPPI in Example 19 was impregnated into SBA-15 by a similar procedure in Example 6. SBA-15 was dried at 383 K under vacuum (<20 mTorr) overnight; 200 mg of SBA-15 was stirred in 10 mL methanol. The desired amount of amine polymer was dissolved in 5 mL methanol and added to the SBA-15 slurry; the mixture was allowed to stir for at least 6 h at room temperature. Methanol was removed in vacuo at room temperature, resulting in a powder that was then dried overnight at room temperature under vacuum (<20 mTorr). Organic content of the samples was estimated on a Netzsch STA409PG TGA by combustion. Mass loss from 398 to 1173 K under a flow of nitrogen-diluted air was recorded (FIG. 13).

Comparative Example C1 Preparation Untreated and NH₄OH-treated BPPUSBA-15 Composites

BPPI was synthesized according to Example 19. Comparative polymers were made by either leaving the polymer untreated after synthesis or dissolving the polymer in 7.5 M NH₄OH solution in water and stirred for 6 h at room temperature, followed by rotary evaporation. Each polymer was impregnated into SBA-15 as stated by Example 20.

Example 21 Adsorption of CO₂ by BPPUSBA-15 Composites

CO₂ adsorption capacities of BPPI/SBA-15 in Example 19 and Example Cl were measured gravimetrically on a TA Instruments Q500 TGA using a procedure similar to that in Example 8. The samples were pretreated by heating to 383 K at a ramp rate of 5 K/min under a flow of N₂ and held for 3 h. The samples were cooled to 308 K and equilibrated for 1 h. The gas flow was switched to a premixed gas containing 10% CO₂/N₂ for 3 h. The adsorption capacities were calculated from the weight gain after the CO₂ exposure.

The sorbents made with polymer neutralized by the basic resin had higher CO₂ capacity than those made with untreated polymer at both polymer loadings tested (FIG. 14). Further, the CO₂ capacity increased for the resin-neutralized polymer at higher polymer loading in the SBA-15 (14.2 mmol N/g silica versus 8.2 mmol N/g silica) by a factor of 13 (FIG. 14). The calculated CO₂ capacity for the NH4OH neutralized polymer at ˜2 mmol N/g silica was higher than for the untreated polymer (0.11 mmol CO₂/g silica versus 0.078 mmol CO_(2/)g silica), but lower than the resin treated polymer (0.15 mmol CO₂/g silica).

Elemental analysis (Atlantic Microlab. Inc) indicated the presence of chlorine (i.e. perchloric salt, perchloricate ion coordinated to a protonated amine, or residual acid) in the sorbents made with resin-treated polymer (0.04 mol Cl/mol N; Table 1), but at much lower values than sorbents made with either the untreated polymer or the polymer treated with NH₄OH (0.26-0.34 mol Cl/mol N). This result, combined with the increased CO₂ capacities, suggests these sorbents have a higher concentration of free amines

TABLE 1 Counterion content (and C/N molar ratios) for sorbents made with untreated, NH₄OH neutralized, and resin-neutralized BPPI. Sorbent (wt %) mol C/mol N mol Cl/mol N BPPI (10) 3.1 0.26 BPPI_NH₄OH (10) 3.8 0.34 BPPI_resin (37) 3.4 0.040

Example 22 Analysis of Mass Loss Curves on BPPI/SBA-15 Composites

The sorbent made with the resin-neutralized polymer showed less significant mass loss determined by TGA than the sorbent with the untreated polymer (FIG. 15). This suggests that smaller, more volatile oligomers were absorbed in the resin.

Example 23 Analysis of Amine Distribution in Neat BPPI by NMR

All ¹H-NMR spectra of BPPI in Examples 19 and Cl in D₂O yielded relative ratios of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines based on prior reports for peak assignments in CDCl₃ [ref] and available NMR predictive software. These results were bolstered with inversely-gated ¹³C NMR studies, which verified the distribution of amine types. The degree of branching, as calculated by ¹H-NMR (FIGS. 16A-E), were similar for the polymer as synthesized and the polymer neutralized with NH₄OH (primary:secondary:tertiary=38:43:19). However, the distribution changed and the NMR peaks shifted upfield for the polymer that was neutralized with the basic resin; most notably, the number of primary amines decreases by 12% (primary:secondary:tertiary=26:51:23). The shift upfield is consistent with the deprotonation of amines. The decrease in primary amines is consistent with mass loss curves in Example 22 that suggest smaller molecular weight oligomers, with high distribution of primary amines, were absorbed in the resin.

It should be noted that ratios, concentrations, amounts, dimensions, and other numerical data may be expressed herein in a range format. It is to be understood that such a range format is used for convenience and brevity, and thus, should be interpreted in a flexible manner to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. To illustrate, a range of “about 0.1% to about 5%” should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited range of about 0.1% to about 5%, but also include individual ranges (e.g., 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) and the sub-ranges (e.g., 0.5%, 1.1%, 2.2%, 3.3%, and 4.4%) within the indicated range. In an embodiment, the term “about” can include traditional rounding according to the numerical value and measurement technique. In addition, the phrase “about ‘x’ to ‘y’” includes “about ‘x’ to about ‘y’”.

It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of this disclosure are merely possible examples of implementations, and are set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of this disclosure. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiments of this disclosure without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of this disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and protected by the following claims. 

1. A material comprising: a porous structure having supported thereon at least one of: a) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent is in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, wherein the PPI sorbent comprises a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, or both the linear PPI and the dendritic PPI; b) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI is physically impregnated in the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the porous structure; c) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent is in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof.
 2. The material of claim 1, wherein when a) or c) are present then the PPI sorbent is physically embedded in a plurality of pores of the structure, wherein the PPI is not covalently bonded to the structure.
 3. The material of claim 1, wherein when a) or c) are present then the PPI sorbent is grafted onto the surface of the pores of the structure.
 4. The material of claim 1, wherein the porous structure is mesoporous.
 5. The material of claim 4, wherein the porous structure containing the impregnated PPI sorbent are in the surface of the porous structure; or in a porous layer disposed on the surface of the porous structure; or a combination thereof.
 6. The material of claim 5, wherein the porous structure is selected from the group consisting of: silica, alumina, aluminosilicates, zirconia, germania, magnesia, titania, hafnia, iron oxide, mixed oxides composed of those elements, a combination thereof.
 7. The material of claim 5, wherein the porous layer is selected from the group consisting of: alumina, silica, and aluminosilica.
 8. The material of claim 5, wherein the porous structure is a honeycomb structure.
 9. The material of claim 8, wherein the porous honeycomb structure is a honeycomb structure monolith.
 10. The material of claim 5, wherein the structure is a powder, a pellet, a foam, a laminate, an extrudate, or a combination thereof.
 11. The material of claim 5, wherein the porous structure is a gas permeable scaffold having a porous surface.
 12. The material of claim 11, wherein the porous surface is a porous layer on the gas permeable scaffold.
 13. The material of claim 1, wherein when a) or b) is present the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the material and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof
 14. The material of claim 1, wherein the linear PPI includes only primary amines, secondary amines, or both primary amines and secondary amines.
 15. The material of claim 1, wherein the PPI sorbent comprises a branched PPI that includes one or more of each of: a primary amine, a secondary amine, and a tertiary amine.
 16. The material of claim 1, wherein the dendritic PPI contains only primary and tertiary amines, wherein groups of repeat units are arranged in a manner that is symmetric in at least one plane through the center of the molecule, wherein each polymer branch is terminated by a primary amine, and wherein each branching point is a tertiary amine.
 17. A method of capturing CO₂, comprising: exposing a gas mixture to a porous structure having supported thereon at least one of: a) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent is in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, wherein the PPI sorbent comprises a linear PPI, a dendritic PPI, or both the linear PPI and the dendritic PPI; b) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI is physically impregnated in the porous structure and not covalently bonded to the porous structure; and c) a poly(propylenimine) (PPI) sorbent, wherein the PPI sorbent is in a plurality of pores of the porous structure, wherein the PPI has one or both of a loading of about 10% to 75% by weight of the composite and a counterion content of less than about 0.1 mol counterion/mol amine or a combination thereof; and capturing the CO₂ in the structure; capturing in the porous structure the CO₂ from the gas mixture.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the gas mixture is a flue gas.
 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the gas mixture is air.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein the gas mixture is a mixture of air and flue gas.
 21. The method of claim 17, wherein exposing include flow the gas mixture across the surface of the structure.
 22. The method of claim 17, further comprising: heating the porous structure to release the CO₂.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein heating includes exposing the porous structure to steam, wherein the temperature of the steam is about 60° C. to 150° C. and the pressure of the steam is about 0.2 bara to 5 bara
 24. The method of claim 17, wherein capturing comprises: capturing about 10% to 100% of the CO₂ present in the gas mixture. 